Rujukan Pertukaran Columbus

  1. ↑ Nunn, Nathan; Qian, Nancy (2010). "The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 24 (2): 163–188. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.232.9242. doi:10.1257/jep.24.2.163. JSTOR 25703506.
  2. ↑ Gambino, Megan (October 4, 2011). "Alfred W. Crosby on the Columbian Exchange". Smithsonian Magazine. Dicapai pada October 19, 2018.
  3. ↑
  4. ↑ Carney, Judith (2001). Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas. United States of America: Harvard University Press. halaman 4–5.
  5. ↑ de Vorsey, Louis (2001). "The Tragedy of the Columbian Exchange". Dalam McIlwraith, Thomas F; Muller, Edward K (para penyunting). North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. m/s. 27. Thanks to…Crosby's work, the term 'Columbian exchange' is now widely used…
  6. ↑ Ley, Willy (December 1965). "The Healthfull Aromatick Herbe". For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. halaman 88–98.
  7. ↑ Nathan, Nunn; Nancy, Qian (2011). "The Potato's Contribution to Population and Urbanization: Evidence from a Historical Experiment". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 2: 593–650.
  8. ↑ Crosby, Alfred (2003). The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. m/s. 184.
  9. ↑ "Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa" Diarkibkan December 8, 2013, di Wayback Machine., The Ohio State University
  10. ↑ "Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem", Scitizen, August 7, 2007
  11. ↑ "China's Population: Readings and Maps", Columbia University, East Asian Curriculum Project
  12. ↑ Nathan, Nunn; Nancy, Qian (2010). "The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food and Ideas" (PDF). Journal of Economic Perspectives. 2: 163–88, 167.
  13. ↑ Crosby, Alfred W. (2003). The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Praeger. m/s. 177.
  14. ↑ Riley, Gillian, penyunting (2007). Tomato. The Oxford Companion to Italian Food. Oxford University Press. halaman 529–530. ISBN 978-0-19-860617-8.
  15. ↑ Collingham, Lizzie (2006). "Vindaloo: the Portuguese and the chilli pepper". Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. Oxford: Oxford University Press. halaman 47–73. ISBN 978-0-19-988381-3.
  16. ↑ Carney, Judith A. (2001). "African Rice in the Columbian Exchange". The Journal of African History. 42 (3): 377–396. JSTOR 3647168.
  17. ↑ Carney, Judith (2001). Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas. United States of America: Harvard University Press. halaman 4–5.
  18. ↑ McNeill, J.R. "The Columbian Exchange". NCpedia. State Library of North Carolina. Dicapai pada 23 October 2018.
  19. ↑ Twitty, Michael (2017). The Cooking Gene. HarperCollins Publishing. m/s. 293.
  20. ↑ Gibson, Arthur. "Bananas & Plantains". University of California, Los Angeles. Diarkib daripada yang asal pada November 10, 2012.
  21. ↑ A History of the Tomato in Italy Pomodoro!, David Gentilcore (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2010).
  22. ↑
  23. ↑ Michael Francis, John, penyunting (2006). Columbian Exchange—Livestock. Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. halaman 303–308. ISBN 978-1-85109-421-9.
  24. ↑ This transfer reintroduced horses to the Americas, as the species had died out there prior to the development of the modern horse in Eurasia.
  25. ↑
  26. ↑
  27. ↑ Esposito, Elena (Summer 2015). "Side Effects of Immunities: the African Slave Trade" (PDF). European University Institute.
  28. ↑ "The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs", Guns, Germs and Steel, PBS Diarkibkan 17 January 2010 at WebCite
  29. 1 2
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 Palmié, Stephan (2011). The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226645087.
  31. ↑ Kent ME, Romanelli F (February 2008). "Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management". Ann Pharmacother. 42 (2): 226–36. doi:10.1345/aph.1K086. PMID 18212261.
  32. 1 2 3 Farhi, D; Dupin, N (Sep–Oct 2010). "Origins of syphilis and management in the immunocompetent patient: facts and controversies". Clinics in Dermatology. 28 (5): 533–8. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.011. PMID 20797514.
  33. ↑ Smith, Tara C. (December 23, 2015). "Thanks Columbus! The true story of how syphilis spread to Europe". Quartz. Dicapai pada 1 September 2016. The first cases of the disease in the Old World were described in 1493.
  34. ↑ A New Skeleton and an Old Debate About Syphilis; The Atlantic; Cari Romm; February 18, 2016
  35. ↑ Franzen, C (December 2008). "Syphilis in composers and musicians—Mozart, Beethoven, Paganini, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana". European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 27 (12): 1151–7. doi:10.1007/s10096-008-0571-x. PMID 18592279.
  36. ↑ Choi, Charles Q. (December 27, 2011). "Case Closed? Columbus Introduced Syphilis to Europe". Scientific American. Dicapai pada 1 September 2016.
  37. ↑ Emmer, Pieter. "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800." European Review 11, no. 1. Feb. 2003. p. 45–46
  38. ↑ Emmer, Pieter. "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800." European Review 11, no. 1. Feb. 2003. p. 46
  39. ↑ Mann, Charles. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. New York, New York: Vintage Books, 2011. loc. 1094 and 1050
  40. ↑ Monardes, Nicholas. "Of the Tabaco and of his Greate Vertues." Frampton, John trans, Wolf, Michael, ed. Taboacco.org. Accessed June 1, 2017 http://archive.tobacco.org/History/monardes.html
  41. ↑ Carney, Judith (2001). Black Rice. Harvard University Press. halaman 2–8.
  42. ↑ Gates, Louis. "100 Amazing Facts About the Negro". PBS. WNET. Dicapai pada 25 October 2018.
  43. ↑ Carney, Judith (2001). Black Rice. Harvard University Press. halaman 2–8.
  44. ↑ Simberloff, Daniel (2000). "Introduced Species: The Threat to Biodiversity & What Can Be Done". American Institute of Biological Sciences: Bringing Biology to Informed Decision Making.
  45. ↑ Fernández Pérez, Joaquin and Ignacio González Tascón (eds.) (1991). La agricultura viajera. Barcelona, Spain: Lunwerg Editores, S. A.
  46. ↑ Elusive Lager Yeast Found in Patagonia, Discovery News, August 23, 2011
  47. ↑ Hoddle, M. S. "Quagga & Zebra Mussels". Center for Invasive Species Research, University of California, Riverside . Dicapai pada June 29, 2010.

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